Nanofluidic chips as micromodels for carbonate reservoirs

ABSTRACT

Methods and systems for generating a nanofluidic chip as a reservoir model are provided. In an example described herein, a nanofluidic chip for reservoir modeling includes a microfluidic chip that includes microchannels etched in a substrate. Silica spheres are assembled in the microchannels to form nanochannels. A carbonate coating is disposed over the surfaces of the nano channels and the silica spheres.

CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION

This application is a divisional of and claims priority to U.S. patent application Ser. No. 16/903,903, filed on Jun. 17, 2020, the entire contents of which is incorporated by reference herein.

BACKGROUND

With the growth of worldwide demand for oil and the decline of the discovery rate of new oil fields, it is important to improve the oil production efficiency of current fields. Further, many of the world's reservoirs trap about two thirds of the oil in place, which cannot be recovered by conventional production methods. To increase oil recovery efficiency, it is important to better understand multiphase fluid behaviors and interactions among oil-water-rock phases in underground oil reservoirs.

A significant proportion of the world's oil reserves are found in carbonate reservoirs. For example, it is estimated that around 70% of oil and 90% of gas reserves are held in carbonate reservoirs in the Middle East. Generally, carbonate rocks are mainly composed of calcite (CaCO₃) and dolomite (CaMg(CO₃)₂). Based on studies on carbonate reservoir rocks in Arabian Peninsula, at typical reservoir depths the calcite content is greater than 90 wt. % and even up to 100 wt. % at certain depth.

Reservoir micromodels, such as microfluidic chips, have been widely used to mimic the underground oil-reservoir environment for multi-phase flow studies, enhanced oil recovery, and reservoir network mapping. However, currently available micromodels have porosities at micrometer (or larger) scales which limits the investigation and visualization of fluid properties at submicron scales. Further, most of the micromodels are constructed of glass or polymer materials, limiting their representation of the properties of a geochemical surface of the carbonate reservoir rocks.

SUMMARY

An embodiment disclosed herein provides a method for modeling a reservoir with a nanofluidic chip. The method includes fabricating the nanofluidic chip by synthesizing silicon dioxide spheres and functionalizing a surface of the silicon dioxide spheres to form functionalized spheres. A surface of microchannels in a glass (fused silica) microfluidic chip is functionalized to form a functionalized microfluidic chip. The functionalized spheres are assembled in microchannels of the functionalized microfluidic chip to form a precursor nanofluidic chip. Calcium carbonate nanocrystals are formed on functionalized surfaces of the precursor nanofluidic chip to form the nanofluidic chip.

Another embodiment described herein provides a nanofluidic chip for reservoir modeling includes a microfluidic chip comprising microchannels etched in a substrate. Silica (silicon dioxide, SiO₂) spheres assembled in the microchannels form nanochannels. A carbonate coating is disposed over the surfaces of the nanochannels and the silica spheres.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 is a drawing of a wellbore drilled into a carbonate reservoir layer.

FIG. 2 is a process flow diagram of a method for fabricating a nanofluidic chip as a micromodel for a carbonate reservoir.

FIGS. 3A-3C are scanning electron micrographs of SiO₂ spheres with different sizes in the nanometer and micrometer range.

FIG. 4 is a schematic diagram of the functionalization of the SiO₂ surfaces of the spheres and the microchannels of the microfluidic chip.

FIG. 5 is a schematic drawing of the method of the assembling of SiO₂ spheres in a microfluidic chip, followed by the growth of a calcium carbonate coating, to form a nanofluidic chip.

FIG. 6 is a schematic diagram of a method for the growth of a calcium carbonate coating on a functionalized surface.

FIGS. 7A-7F are SEM images and EDX showing the elemental mapping of the calcium carbonate coated SiO₂ spheres

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

In the field of research about oil reservoir and enhanced oil recovery (EOR), it is desirable to have a micromodel with controllable porosity at submicron scale and with surface property of carbonates. Current commercial EOR microfluidic chips have two dimensional (2D) microchannels that are about 20 μm to about 200 μm in size. However, carbonate reservoirs may have smaller channel sizes, e.g., less than about 1 μm. The current techniques for fabricating microchannels in microfluidic chips, often based on photoetching of a substrate, do not adequately scale to smaller channel sizes, such as channel sizes below 1 μm. Accordingly, there is no commercially available nanofluidic chip with nanoscale channels and porosity, termed channels herein, especially for those made by optical transparent materials such as glass and polymers.

In the techniques described herein are directed to a chemical procedure to fabricate such nanofluidic chips with nanoscale channels, and surface of calcium carbonate, calcium magnesium carbonate, e.g., CaCO₃, CaMg(CO₃)₂, or both. The nanofluidic chips can be used as carbonate micromodels for oil and gas reservoir applications.

In the fabrication process described herein, silica (silicon dioxide, SiO₂) spheres that are substantially monodisperse and in controlled sizes, both in micron and nanometer ranges of 50-2500 nm, are synthesized via a colloidal synthesis method. The surfaces of the silica spheres and of the microfluidic channels in a microfluidic chip are then functionalized. The silica spheres are assembled within the microfluidic channels of a microfluidic chip to form a random close packing (RCP) structure. After assembly, the surfaces, both of the silica spheres and of the microfluidic channels, are coated by in situ growing of a thin layer of CaCO₃ nanocrystals, simulating calcite, or a layer of nanocrystals that includes CaMg(CO₃)₃, simulating dolomite. Because the nanocrystal coated spheres are densely packed in a near three-dimensional (3D) close-packed colloidal structure, the network of voids between the silica spheres forms nanoscale channels. Column experiments and computer simulations have shown that the approximately 64% of the volume fraction of space is occupied by the spheres in a random closest packing configuration, i.e. ˜36% space is left as voids between the spheres. In a microfluidic chip, similar density of packed spheres is expected and the desired porosity is controlled by the size of silica spheres. For example, larger spheres will provide larger channels. In close-packed sphere geometry, it can form a tetrahedral void since the four spheres surrounding it arranged on the corners of a regular tetrahedron, or an octahedral void since the six spheres surrounding it lie at the corners of a regular octahedron. If R denotes the radius of the SiO₂ spheres surrounding a tetrahedral or an octahedral void, the radius of the spheres that would just fit into the voids are given by 0.225R or 0.414R, respectively. Therefore, sizes of nanofluidic channels can be 0.22˜0.414 of the SiO₂ sphere sizes used to fabricate the nanofluidic channels. With SiO₂ spheres in size range of 50-2500 nm, the voids can be created in controllable size range about 10-1000 nm.

The size of the nanospheres varies from tens of nanometer to several thousands of nanometer in diameter to form the 3D dense pack in the tens or hundreds of micrometer size channels of the chips. In some embodiments, the largest nanoscale channels in a nanofluidic chip are less than about 1000 nm. In other embodiments, the channels are less than about 20 nm. For example, 1200 nm SiO₂ spheres can generate channels in range of about 254 nm to about 497 nm, and 200 nm SiO₂ spheres can generate channels in range of about 42 nm to about 83 nm.

The new carbonate nanofluidic chips provide a simple and useful micromodel system for modeling a reservoir, allowing the study of oil-water phase behavior and the interactions between fluids and surfaces, such as rock-fluid interactions, at nanoscale porosities using small volume of samples and at low cost. The nanofluidic chips are optically transparent, allowing interactions between fluids and the surfaces to be directly visualized by multiple characterization tools, such as advanced spectroscopic and microscopic techniques, providing useful information for enhanced oil recovery.

FIG. 1 is a drawing 100 of a wellbore 102 drilled into a carbonate reservoir layer 104. In this illustration, the carbonate reservoir layer 104 is bounded by an upper layer 106, such as a layer of cap rock, and a lower layer 108, such as a salt layer.

In the drawing 100, a drilling rig 110, or other completion equipment, at the surface 112 is used to treat the wellbore 102 in the carbonate reservoir layer 104. This may be done by techniques that create fractures or other openings 114 in the carbonate reservoir layer 104. For example, acid treatment may be used to create the openings 114.

Understanding the multiphase flow behavior in the carbonate reservoir layer 104 is important to determining the best treatment to maximize production. As described herein, the fabricated nanofluidic chip can be used as a micromodel system to study multiphase fluid behavior. The usefulness of the nanofluidic chip has been demonstrated for a water flooding experiment for studying oil replacement in the nano-pore channels, and for an electrokinetic fluid diffusion experiment with dead-end structured nanopores.

FIG. 2 is a process flow diagram of a method 200 for fabricating a nanofluidic chip as a micromodel for a carbonate reservoir. The procedure creates nanoscale porosities, or channels, in calcium carbonate (CaCO₃) fluidic chips. The nanofluidic chips are fabricated from commercially available glass or quartz microfluidic chips with two-dimensional (2D) microsized channels and porosity. Various microfluidic chips with micrometer porosity (micropores or microchannels) are commercially available, such as a glass enhanced oil recovery (EOR) chip available from Micronit Company of the Netherlands or glass-silicon-glass EOR/IOR rock-on-a-chip from HOT Engineering GMBH.

Generally, monodisperse SiO₂ colloidal nanospheres or microspheres are assembled in the 2D microchannels of the EOR chip to form a 3D random close packed (RCP) structure within the microchannels. This creates voids between the SiO₂ spheres, and the network of 3D connected voids form channels. The size of the channels can be controlled in the nanoscale, or submicron, range depending on the sizes of SiO₂ spheres used. To enable the channels to chemically resemble a carbonate reservoir, calcium carbonate nanocrystals are formed on the surface of the SiO₂ of these spheres and the microchannels through an in-situ chemical coating process. The CaCO₃ layer also immobilizes the SiO₂ spheres within the microfluidic chips. Thus, fully carbonate surfaced microfluidic chips with channels having a nanoscale, termed nanofluidic chips herein, are fabricated.

The method begins at block 202 with the synthesis of monodisperse SiO₂ spheres. The monodisperse spheres can be made with different sizes both in the micrometer and nanometer ranges, depending on the target scale for the channels in the nanofluidic chips. Generally, the synthesis is based on the hydrolysis reaction of tetraalkylorthosilicate compounds in a water-alcohol mixture with ammonia as a catalyst. The synthesis method is discussed further with respect in the examples below. Examples of the monodisperse spheres is shown in the scanning electron micrograph of FIG. 3.

At block 204, the surfaces of the spheres are functionalized by chemically grafting carboxylate groups onto the surface using a silane coupling agent. This is performed by first hydrolyzing the surfaces to form hydroxyl groups, then reacting the hydrolyzed surface with the silane coupling agent. The same treatment is performed on the surface of microchannels in the microfluidic chip to form a functionalized microfluidic chip. The same silane coupling agent, or a different silane coupling agent, may be used for each surface. An example of the hydrolysis and functionalization of the surfaces is shown in FIG. 4, with N-(trimethoxysilylpropyl) ethylene diaminetriacetate as the silane coupling agent. Other silane coupling agents that can be used include trimethoxysilylpropyl modified (polyethylenimine), or 3-(trihydroxysilyl) propyl methylphosphonate, among others. Combinations of silane coupling agents may be used to adjust the properties.

At block 206, the spheres are assembled in the microchannels of the EOR chip. In an embodiment, monodisperse and surface-functionalized spheres are suspended in ethanol to form a colloidal suspension. The colloidal suspension is injected into the EOR chip, and the spheres are caught in the microchannels to form a random close packing (RCP) structure. The measured void volume fraction between the spheres is about 30% to about 42% of the whole spheres occupied space. The voids between the spheres create channels at a nanometer scale depending on the size of the spheres used, allowing control over the size of channels. As used herein, this creates a precursor nanofluidic chip. In some embodiments, two or more different sizes of functionalized spheres (varying from 400 nm to 1200 nm) are used to create different sizes of channels in the precursor nanofluidic chip.

At block 208, calcite crystals are grown on the functionalized surfaces of the spheres and microchannels in the precursor nanofluidic chip, creating the nanofluidic chip. This may be performed by iteratively flowing solutions of calcium chloride (CaCl₂) and sodium carbonate (Na₂CO₃) through the precursor nanofluidic chip. As each solution flows through the chip, material is added to the surfaces, forming a calcium carbonate (CaCO₃) surface. Generally, five to 10 iterations are used to form a thin layer of CaCO₃ on the silica surface through the net reaction:

Ca²⁺(aq)+CO₃ ²⁻(aq)→CaCO₃(s).

This surface layer is not limited to calcium carbonate, which simulates calcite, but may also include magnesium carbonate (MgCO₃) in combination with the calcium carbonate to simulate a dolomite surface. The composition may be used to adjust the surface properties to more closely match the chemical composition of a particular carbonate reservoir. For example, other elements may also be included in the solutions to form the thin layer, including, for example, aluminum, silicon, zinc, iron, copper, manganese, titanium, vanadium, or other elements, or combinations of elements, which may be found in target reservoirs.

After the formation of the thin calcium carbonate, or calcium/magnesium carbonate layer, the nanofluidic chip may be used for testing of water flooding, carbon dioxide flooding, separations, phase treatments, acid treatments, and other enhanced oil recovery techniques.

EXAMPLES

Materials

The materials used for the synthesis of SiO₂ nanoparticle were tetraethyl orthosilicate (TEOS, 99%) and NH₃.H₂O (29.4%), obtained from Fluka and J. T. Baker, respectively. For the functionalization and assembly of the nanospheres in the microfluidic chip, absolute ethanol, chloroform, 2-propanol (99.5%), and NaOH solution (1 N) were obtained from EM Science. The silane coupling agent used for functionalizing the spheres and the microchannels of the microchips was (trimethoxysilylpropyl) ethylenediaminetriacetate trisodium (35% in water) obtained from Gelest.

Formation of Monodisperse SiO₂ Spheres

Monodisperse SiO₂ spheres were prepared by hydrolyzing TEOS in an alcoholic medium in the presence of water and ammonia using a modified procedure originally known as the Stober reaction. Typical preparation is to rapidly mix two equal-volume parts with a total volume of 250 mL one includes alcohol and TEOS, while another one includes alcohol, water, and ammonia. Fixed concentrations of 17.0 M H₂O and 1.63 M NH₃ in ethanol were used for the synthesis of SiO₂ nanoparticles, and the resulting particle sizes were controlled by varying TEOS concentration and temperature. Depending on the TEOS concentration and reaction temperature, the reaction mixture appeared to be turbid white in 2-15 min, as SiO₂ particles were formed. The sizes of the spheres depended on the concentration of the TEOS, for examples, 400 nm particles from 0.2M TEOS at 25° C., 800 nm SiO₂ from 0.3M TEOS at 18° C., and 1200 nm SiO₂ from 0.6M TEOS at 10° C., respectively. The reaction was continued for greater than about 6 hrs with moderate stirring at room temperature. SiO₂ spheres can be synthesized in size range of 50-2500 nm depending on different reaction parameters.

FIGS. 3A-3C are scanning electron micrographs of SiO₂ spheres with different sizes in the nanometer and micrometer range. FIG. 3A shows spheres with a diameter of about 650 nm, which provides channels of about 138 nm to about 269 nm in size in a random close packing configuration. FIG. 3B shows spheres with a diameter of about 1 μm, which provides channels of about 212 nm to about 414 nm in size in an RCP configuration. FIG. 3C shows spheres with a diameter of about 400 nm, which provides channels of about 85 nm to about 166 nm in size in an RCP configuration.

The SEM images were taken by scanning electron microscopy (SEM, JEOL, JSM-7100F field emission) at 5 kV, and no additional coating was applied onto the sample surface. The same instrument with EDX analysis (Oxford Instruments) at 20 kV was used for elemental analysis imaging with the results as described with respect to FIG. 7.

Functionalization of SiO₂ Surfaces

FIG. 4 is a schematic diagram of the functionalization 400 of the SiO₂ surfaces of the spheres and the microchannels of the microfluidic chip. As described herein this is performed prior to injecting the spheres into the microfluidic chip. In some embodiments, spheres may be injected into the microfluidic chip prior to functionalization, and the functionalization may be performed for both the spheres and the channels of the microfluidic chip at the same time.

To begin, the surfaces of glass (fused SiO₂) microfluidic chips are hydrolyzed to provide an increased number of —OH groups. This was performed by reacting the surfaces with Piranha solution (typically a mixture of 3 parts of concentrated sulfuric acid and 1 part of 30% hydrogen peroxide solution) or an aqueous base (such as 1M NaOH solution).

The hydrolyzed surface 402 is functionalized by chemically grafting carboxylate groups (—COO⁻) to the hydrolyzed surface 402 using a silane coupling agent that reacts with the OH groups, for example, the coupling agent 404 (N-(trimethoxysilylpropyl) ethylenediaminetriacetate, sodium salt) shown in FIG. 4.

In this example, the SiO₂ spheres and microchannels were surface-functionalized respectively, before assembling the SiO₂ spheres into the microchannels of chip. To functionalize the surface of glass microchannel (EOR chip), 2 mL silane coupling agent, N-(trimethoxysilylpropyl) ethylenediaminetriacetate trisodium was first mixed with 10 mL of a chloroform-water solution (volume ratio 1:1) under magnetic stirring. The pH value of the mixture was adjusted to ˜1.5 using hydrochloric acid, which solubilized the silane molecules in the chloroform phase. The chloroform phase containing the silane molecules was pumped through the microchannels of the microfluidic chip at 0.1 mL/min for 2-5 min. and allow to sit in the microchannels for 15 min. before removed by an air flow. This process was repeated for 3-5 times then the microchannels were rinsed with ethanol and 0.05 M CaCl₂ solution and dried at 60° C. for overnight. To functionalize the SiO₂ spheres, upon the synthetic reaction completion in 6 hrs for SiO₂ formation, 2 mL silane coupling agent, N-(trimethoxysilylpropyl) ethylenediaminetriacetate trisodium was added to the reaction solution, and the reaction was allowed for additional 12 hrs for completion.

The resulting functionalized surface 406 has accessible carboxylate groups coupled to the surface. Once the carboxylate groups are grafted to the spheres and the internal surfaces of the microfluidic chip, the nanofluidic chip can be assembled by injecting the spheres into the microfluidic chip, as described with respect to FIG. 2.

Assembling the Nanofluidic Chip

FIG. 5 is a schematic drawing of the method 500 of the assembling of SiO₂ spheres in a microfluidic chip, followed by the growth of a calcium carbonate coating, to form a nanofluidic chip. As shown in FIG. 5, the microfluidic chip 502 is treated to form the surface functionality as described with respect to FIG. 4. The treated microfluidic chip 504 is then injected with the SiO₂ spheres to form the precursor nanofluidic chip 506, which is shown at two levels of magnification.

To assemble the spheres into the microfluidic chip, the spheres were suspended in ethanol at a concentration of about 5 to about 10 vol. % and injected to fill the microfluidic channels. During the injection, a filtration paper was used to retain the SiO₂ sphere at another end of the chip. When the SiO₂ spheres are filled in full for all channels, the chip was vertically placed and let the SiO₂ sphere settle and dry naturally in 24 hours. Then the process was repeated to fill additional voids or cracks and dry again.

The precursor nanofluidic chip 506 is then iteratively treated with the calcium chloride and sodium carbonate solutions to form a calcite coating, resulting in the nanofluidic chip 508. The formation of the calcite coating is described further with respect to FIG. 6.

FIG. 6 is a schematic diagram of a method 600 for the growth of a calcium carbonate coating 602 on a functionalized surface 604. As described herein, the calcium carbonate coating 602 may be grown on the functionalized surfaces of the spheres and the microfluidic chip of the precursor nanofluidic chip 506 (FIG. 5).

For growing the nanocrystals of CaCO₃, a 0.05 M solution of CaCl₂ in DI water was pumped through the nanochannels of the precursor nanofluidic chip at 0.1 mL/min for 2 min., and allowed to remain in the chip for 10 min., before being removed by a flow of air. Subsequently, a 0.05 M Na₂CO₃ solution in DI water was pumped through the channels at 0.1 mL/min for 2 min., and allowed to remain in the chip for 10 min., before being removed by a flow of air. The above process was repeated alternatively for about 5 to 20 times depending on different thickness of CaCO₃ layer, and finally rinsed by ethanol and dried at 80° C. in air. Between each injection of a different solution, the precursor nanofluidic chip 506 is rinsed with a flow of 0.05 ml of deionized water to prevent precipitation of calcium carbonate in the channels. Depending on concentrations of Ca²⁺ and CO₃ ²⁻ used in the coating and the repeated times of the coating process, the thickness of formed CaCO₃ nanocrystal layers can be controlled in range of 5-100 nm.

The solutions to form the calcite layer were prepared by dissolving 1.11 g of calcium chloride (CaCl₂) is in 100 ml of deionized water and dissolving 1.06 g of sodium carbonate (Na₂CO₃) in 100 ml of deionized water. The sodium ions initially on the carboxylate functionalities, as shown for the functionalized surface 406 (FIG. 4), are replaced with calcium ions by flowing 0.05 ml of the calcium chloride solution through the precursor nanofluidic chip 506 (FIG. 5), forming a calcium substituted surface 606. An initial layer 608 of calcium carbonate, or seed formation, is performed by flowing 0.05 ml of the sodium carbonate solution through the precursor nanofluidic chip 506.

Once the seed formation is completed, forming the initial layer 608, the calcite coating 602 is formed by alternating the flow of 0.05 ml of the calcium chloride solution with a flow of 0.05 ml of the sodium carbonate solution. Between each injection of a different solution, the nanofluidic chip is blown with a flow of air to get rid of access liquid preventing precipitation of calcium carbonate in the channels, and then rinsed with 0.05 ml of DI water. Generally, this is repeated for 5 to 20 cycles.

To test the coating procedure, spheres were coated with calcite as described in the procedure above. These were then imaged using SEM and EDX to confirm the uniform coating of the SiO₂ surface with calcium carbonate.

FIGS. 7A-7F are SEM images and EDX showing the elemental mapping of the calcium carbonate coated SiO₂ spheres. In FIG. 7A, spheres after coating with calcite are shown. In this example, the spheres are about 650 nm in diameter. A closer view is shown in FIG. 7B.

As can be seen in FIG. 7C, a silicon analysis shows that the spheres are dark against the background of silicon wafer, indicating that the SiO₂ surface is covered by the surface coating. In FIG. 7D, the oxygen in the calcite layer is clearly shown by the brightness of the spheres against the background.

In FIG. 7E, the calcium and the calcite layer is shown by the contrast of the spheres with the background, where the spheres are brighter than the background. In FIG. 7F, the carbon in the calcite layer is shown by the contrast of the spheres with the background, where the spheres are brighter than the background.

An embodiment disclosed herein provides a method for modeling a reservoir with a nanofluidic chip. The method includes fabricating the nanofluidic chip by synthesizing silicon dioxide spheres and functionalizing a surface of the silicon dioxide spheres to form functionalized spheres. A surface of microchannels in a microfluidic chip is functionalized to form a functionalized microfluidic chip. The functionalized spheres are assembled in microchannels of the functionalized microfluidic chip to form a precursor nanofluidic chip. Calcium carbonate nanocrystals are formed on functionalized surfaces of the precursor nanofluidic chip to form the nanofluidic chip.

In an aspect, the silicon dioxide spheres are synthesized to be about 50 to about 2500 nm in diameter. In an aspect, substantially monodisperse silicon dioxide spheres are synthesized. In an aspect, the silicone dioxide spheres are synthesized by hydrolyzing a tetraalkylorthosilicate compound in a water-alcohol mixture with ammonia as a catalyst.

In an aspect, the surface of the silicon dioxide spheres is functionalized by hydrolyzing the surface of the silicon dioxide spheres to form hydroxyl groups. A silane coupling agent comprising carboxylate groups is reacted with the hydrolyze surface through the silane, leaving the carboxylate groups exposed. In an aspect, the surface of the microchannels in a microfluidic chip is functionalized by injecting a reagent to hydrolyze the surface of the microchannels to form hydroxyl groups and injecting a silane coupling agent comprising carboxylate groups, wherein the silane reacts with the hydrolyze surface and the carboxylate groups are exposed.

In an aspect, the functionalized spheres are assailed channels of the functionalized microfluidic chip by suspending the functional spheres and ethanol to form a colloidal suspension. The colloidal suspension is injected into the microfluidic chip, wherein the functionalized spheres are trapped in the microchannels of the microfluidic chip to assemble into random close-packed structures.

In an aspect, the calcium carbonate nanocrystals are formed by flowing a calcium chloride solution through the precursor nanofluidic chip and iterating between flowing a sodium carbonate solution through the precursor nanofluidic chip and flowing the calcium chloride solution through the precursor nanofluidic chip. In an aspect, the iteration is performed for between five and 20 cycles forming a layer of calcium carbonate nanocrystals having a thickness of about 5 nm to about 100 nm. In an aspect, and magnesium chloride solution, or a mixed calcium chloride and magnesium chloride solution, is flowed through the precursor nanofluidic during and iteration.

In an aspect, a size of channels in the nanofluidic chip is controlled by selecting a size of the silicon dioxide spheres, wherein the size of channels in a network of voids is between about 10 nm to about 1000 nm. In an aspect, the precursor nanofluidic chip is assembled from functionalized spheres of two different sizes and generating mixed nanoscale porosity.

In an aspect, the nanofluidic chip is used to study oil-water phase behavior in nanoscale pores of the reservoir. In an aspect, the nanofluidic chip is used to study rock-fluid interactions in nanoscale pores of the reservoir. In an aspect, the nanofluidic chip is used in microscopic studies of interactions between fluids and surfaces. In an aspect, an optically transparent nanofluidic chip is used in spectroscopic studies of interactions between fluids and surfaces.

Another embodiment described herein provides a nanofluidic chip for reservoir modeling includes a microfluidic chip comprising microchannels etched in a substrate. Silica spheres assembled in the microchannels form nanochannels. A carbonate coating is disposed over the surfaces of the nanochannels and the silica spheres.

In an aspect, the nanofluidic chip includes nanochannels of less than 1000 nm. In an aspect, the nanofluidic chip includes nanochannels of less than 20 nm.

In an aspect, the carbonate coating includes calcium. In an aspect, the carbonate coating includes magnesium. In an aspect, the carbonate coating includes both calcium and magnesium. In an aspect, the carbonate coating includes aluminum, zinc, iron, calcium, magnesium, titanium, or vanadium, or any combinations thereof.

Other implementations are also within the scope of the following claims. 

1-16. (canceled)
 17. A nanofluidic chip for reservoir modeling, comprising: a microfluidic chip comprising microchannels etched in a substrate; silica spheres assembled in the microchannels form nanochannels; and a carbonate coating disposed over surfaces of the nanochannels and the silica spheres.
 18. The nanofluidic chip of claim 17, comprising nanochannels of less than 1000 nm.
 19. The nanofluidic chip of claim 17, comprising nanochannels of less than 20 nm.
 20. The nanofluidic chip of claim 17, wherein the carbonate coating comprises calcium.
 21. The nanofluidic chip of claim 17, wherein the carbonate coating comprises magnesium.
 22. The nanofluidic chip of claim 17, wherein the carbonate coating comprises both calcium and magnesium.
 23. The nanofluidic chip of claim 17, wherein the carbonate coating comprises aluminum, zinc, iron, calcium, magnesium, titanium, or vanadium, or any combinations thereof.
 24. The nanofluidic chip of claim 17, wherein the silica spheres are about 50 to about 2500 nm in diameter.
 25. The nanofluidic chip of claim 17, wherein the silica spheres are substantially monodisperse.
 26. The nanofluidic chip of claim 17, wherein the silica spheres comprise two different sizes.
 27. The nanofluidic chip of claim 25, wherein the silica spheres are synthesized by hydrolyzing a tetraalkylorthosilicate compound in a water-alcohol mixture with ammonia as a catalyst.
 28. The nanofluidic chip of claim 17, wherein the silica spheres further comprise carboxylate groups on an outer surface, wherein the carboxylate groups are coupled to silane groups that are coupled to the silica spheres by hydroxyl groups on the outer surface.
 29. The nanofluidic chip of claim 17, wherein the microchannels further comprise carboxylate groups on a surface, wherein the carboxylate groups are coupled to silane groups that are coupled to the surface of the microchannels by hydroxyl groups on the outer surface.
 30. The nanofluidic chip of claim 17, wherein the carbonate coating is between about 5 nm and about 100 nm in thickness.
 31. The nanofluidic chip of claim 17, wherein the nanofluidic chip is fabricated by: synthesizing the silica spheres; functionalizing a surface of the silica spheres to form functionalized silica spheres; functionalizing a surface of microchannels in a microfluidic chip to form a functionalized microfluidic chip; assembling the functionalized silica spheres in microchannels of the functionalized microfluidic chip to form a precursor nanofluidic chip; and forming calcium carbonate nanocrystals on functionalized surfaces of the precursor nanofluidic chip to form the nanofluidic chip.
 32. The nanofluidic chip of claim 17, wherein the nanfluidic ship is optically transparent. 